Psychotherapy and The Mind: Critical Thinking, Knowledge, and the Scientific Method

Uncritical Thinking

For centuries, people based their beliefs on their interpretations of what they saw going on in the world around them without testing their ideas to determine the validity of these theories—in other words, they didn't use the scientific method to arrive at answers to their questions. Rather, their conclusions were based on untested observations, popular belief, or speculation.

Beginning with Hippocrates in 300 BC until the advent of modern medical research in the nineteenth century, most doctors believed that illness resulted from an imbalance of four fluids, called "humours," in the body: blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile.

It was believed that different foods produced different humours within the body. For example, warm foods tended to produce yellow bile while cold foods tended to produce its opposite, phlegm. Medical treatments focused on correcting imbalances in these humours. A person suffering from an excess of one humour would be served a food associated with the opposite humour. For example, a person who was coughing up phlegm was served wine, which was thought to produce yellow bile. It was also believed that these humours gave off vapors which ascended to the brain and that an individual's personality characteristics were determined by the state of that person's humours.

Even today, the remnants of Hippocrates' four humours persist, especially in astrology and alternative health cures, where they are believed to determine personality, health, and happiness. It was also believed that the four seasons of the year could affect the health of a patient. Many medieval physicians used astrology as part of their treatment, believing that the movements of the moon and stars affected when a cure was most effective. These beliefs still persist today in many astrological circles. For example, many people claim that a full moon affects their health, despite no scientific evidence to support this. What is actually happening is that the person knows it is a full moon and this unconsciously affects their feelings and behavior.

Methods of "Knowing" Something

Why were these absurd beliefs so widely adopted in medieval societies? We can understand this question by examining the nature of how we "know" something. Before the advent of science, knowledge was obtained primarily by the following methods:

• Revelation
• Authority
• Moral insight
• Intuition
• Speculation
• Hopeful or wishful thinking
• Popular belief

Historically, these methods have almost always resulted in unreliable knowledge. This is especially evident in astronomy, physics, medicine, and social beliefs (e.g. race and gender). For example, the Catholic Church was the defining source of knowledge for hundreds of years. Its authority to determine knowledge was strictly enforced with coercion, threats, and death. Galileo, who famously proposed that the earth moved around the sun instead of vice-versa, was imprisoned as a heretic. Giordano Bruno was burned at the stake in 1600 after expressing similar views.

The Appeal of Nonscientific Methods

Despite repeated failures, nonscientific methods of knowledge acquisition continue to be prevalent. Their continued appeal can be explained by several reasons:

• They are more emotionally appealing.
• They are easier to learn and practice than scientific methods.
• They are socially reinforced and culturally transmitted.

Humans are conditioned from birth to follow authority figures and not question their pronouncements. Knowledge imparted by authority figures is often accepted without scrutiny. Such conditioning is reinforced through parental and educational systems, shaping adult belief systems.

Critical Thinking and the Scientific Method

Critical thinking can be described as problem-solving skills that result in reliable knowledge. It is the scientific method applied to everyday life. The process uses observable and measurable evidence combined with logical reasoning:

1) Observe a situation — e.g. tomatoes vary in size in a garden.
2) Identify a question — Does sunlight affect tomato growth?
3) Formulate a hypothesis — "More sunlight increases tomato size."
4) Test and evaluate — Conduct experiments, analyze data, revise hypothesis.
5) Draw conclusions — Confirm or refine theory based on results.

Conclusions made from scientific reasoning lead to more reliable knowledge than other methods.

Warning Signs of Poor Critical Thinking

Be skeptical. Skepticism means believing something only when there is sufficient and reliable evidence. This is especially important in psychotherapy and mental health, where unconscious assumptions often shape emotional experience.

Applying critical thinking to mental health is equally important. Evidence-based psychodynamic therapy draws on these principles of inquiry and reflection—helping you examine unconscious patterns rather than accept them at face value. Whether you are navigating anxiety, depression, or professional burnout, a scientifically grounded therapeutic approach can make a meaningful difference.

Examples of questionable "ways of knowing" that warrant skepticism:
• Revelation: "An evil angel told me illness is punishment."
• Authority: "My priest said evolution is false."
• Intuition: "It just makes sense that 9/11 was manipulated."
• Speculation: "Spinal manipulation puts things back into place."
• Wishful thinking: "This remedy must work because it's my last hope."
• Popular belief: "Everyone says herbs work, so they must."
• Anecdotal observation: "Someone felt better after taking it."